"Mesopotamian and Egyptian social hierarchy, government, and religion through primary sources."

At the time they were revered as heroes and gods; today they are nothing more than stories read by students and scholars, their purposes lost through time as they now can be used to reflect the society of the age. From such stories as The Epic of Gilgamesh and Setne Khamwas and Naneferkapth one can extract elements of daily life such as social hierarchy, government, and the religion of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian societies. Nothing can fully replicate the actual conditions of these times; however, from such primary sources one can develop a strong sense of what life was like for those of the time of Gilgamesh and Setne.

Social hierarchy played a large role in the distinguishing of the several classes in ancient Mesopotamia. Forced to live in the ghettos, the poor worked for little to no pay, while others were living life to its fullest extent in the lavish palaces. What separated these classes from each other? Obviously money is a large reason for differentiation. However, people often found that they were born into their social seat and remained within close proximity to it throughout one's lifetime. The gods created Gilgamesh and had "made his beauty perfect, surpassing all others, terrifying like a great wild bull" (60). Gilgamesh was an icon of the gods' hard work and power and therefore undoubtedly be the one and only king. Beyond being a living deity, Gilgamesh gained power and support by building the city of Uruk. It is no surprise that he decorated his capital city with elegance and grace; also fortifying it against enemy attack. Below the king, in this epic, is Enkidu. Enkidu roamed the outskirts of town and protected it from attackers and wild animals alike, for "Enkidu was their watchman, the strong man who had no rival" (63). This character represents the military that would normally deal with such problems. From secondary sources, one might also learn that the military is often toward the top of the social ladder; Mesopotamia is not excluded from this category. In addition, being the one who gathers food for Uruk, Enkidu represents farmers and hunters; "He caught wolves and lions so that the shepherds could rest at night" (63). Being on the outside of the city walls and forgotten about by the common city-folk, the farmers were usually under appreciated as people began to take for granted the large supply of food that was readily available.

In an empire so great the people gave worship to their pharaohs and worshiped them as a god, once this happened he gained the power to rule over everything and everyone as he pleased, making up the rules as he went along. The Pharaoh is clearly the high point of the Egyptian social ladder. Below him would be the military leaders, just as in Mesopotamia. They protected the Pharaoh and often married into his family, as the Pharaoh wanted in Setne Khamwas and Naneforkapth. Toward the top of the ladder also sat the high priests and their families, as exemplified when the daughter of the priest was described as "very beautiful and wore many golden jewels, and maid servants walked behind her as well as two men servants belonging to her household" (79). Below all of these people laid those who worked toward the glory and happiness of the Pharaoh; these were the servants who took Naneferkapth to find the book and those who followed the priest's daughter, listening to her every desire. It was the servants who, unknowingly, made the empire and government so great and powerful.

Governments are often what hold together societies and establish rule and order for the people. Gilgamesh obviously had the rule of his people; if they rebelled, he would have destroyed them. His supreme rule sometimes allowed him to take advantage of this fact. After marriages, Gilgamesh demanded, "to be the first with the bride," claiming it was his right that had been "ordained from birth, from the time the umbilical chord was cut" (64). Enkidu, who represents the people of Uruk, who fought Gilgamesh on the matter, protested this. Eventually victorious, Gilgamesh quickly had his power and glory proclaimed by Enkidu. Gilgamesh forgave Enkidu him and the returned to living together in peace. This represents the powerful government (Gilgamesh) ending a protest by the people (Enkidu) proving the king's ultimate rule in Mesopotamia.

To the Egyptians, government and religion seemed to merge into one centralized group. The Pharaoh, obviously being at the top of the command, was also the head of the Egyptian religion and a god himself. The people loved and cherished him as both. He supported several projects benefitting society. However there were also lavish undertakings solely for his own prosperity, such as the pyramids and other burial chambers. The Pharaoh shows his greediness in these measures as well as with his goal of attaining "the book" in Setne Khamwas and Naneforkapth (74-75). There the Pharaoh lends his ship to his son, so that he may obtain a magical book of spells from its protected location. This action shows some of his greediness as well as desire of knowledge, which knowledge neither Pharaoh nor his son would have shared with any of the common folk or even with other members of the government. Along with the Pharaoh were other positions of lesser value but sometimes equal importance. Many of these people rest on the Pharaoh's council, who help advise him. However, these people turned into yes men agreeing with whatever the Pharaoh said. On the council rested the priests of Ptah and the chief priest of Ptah to the Pharaoh (78).

The gods of Mesopotamia had the power to give in glory and to take away in haste such as they did through the great flood. The gods had become annoyed with the city of Shurrupak; it had become old and loud so that "the uproar of mankind [became] intolerable and sleep [was] no longer possible by reason of the babel" (65). From this, the gods decided to terminate humanity through a giant flood. All of the gods agreed to ending the human race and set out to prepare for the large event; all but one. The god Ea spoke to one man, in his dream - so not to be detected by the other gods, and warned him of the approaching flood. This one man, the son of Ubrara-Tutu was the survivor and the key to saving human life. The flood came and washed all of humanity away, except for one. When Enlil, who planned the extermination, discovered this one man floating about he became outraged that someone betrayed him; however, after the grateful words of Ea, Enlil realized his mistake and that his punishment was too harsh. After which he went to the boat, blessed them, and said: "In time past Utnapishtim was a mortal man; henceforth he and his wife shall live in the distance at the mouth of the rivers" (67). Mesopotamia's gods were conscious of their faults and not afraid to correct themselves and so they blessed mankind by allowing them to live at the mouth of the rivers, which was the home of Ea and the Mesopotamia 'heaven.'

The Egyptian deities were kind gods who sent out harsh punishments to protect humanity. What good is knowledge if one cannot use it to change something? When one learns something, they have a desire to teach it to another. Why would Toth send out a curse to protect a book of knowledge from man (76)? He "sent a divine power from heaven, saying 'Do not allow Naneferkaptah and any person belonging to him to get to Memphis safely'" (76), referring to the one who acquired his book. Once humanity acquires knowledge, it does not go away, but spreads like a wildfire throughout educated humanity. Knowledge of everything, similar to what the book granted, lets man see himself in the world as the cause of the downfall of humanity. If the book was allowed to circulate and to be distributed man would rule the world and eventually destroy himself. Toth, and the other gods, who helped to hide the book, acted not to harm those who acquired knowledge but to keep it from spreading a blanket over man that would extinguish man as it does a fire. Was death a harsh punishment? Was it too harsh considering what it did to help man? Toth, and his fellow gods, performed a service that forever assisted Egypt showing how kind and affectionate they really were.

Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt have many similar characteristics in the fields of social hierarchy, government, and religion. Both have their ruling elite and give them much of the wealth and power, whereas the lower classes work hard labor for little pay. In both stories, the king was portrayed as being a god and having full rule over their territory. Both gods (or group of gods) acted in, what seems to be, a harsh manner that proved to a blessing to each culture. Yet, despite these similarities, there are still differences that loom within the two nations such as culture and language. Moreover, although these stories are no longer preached religiously, they still provide a historical background, as a primary source, and entertainment to whomever may read them as long as they are given to students to read and enjoy.